Dubai
Most populous city in the United Arab Emirates / From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Dubai (/duːˈbaɪ/, doo-BY; Arabic: دبي, romanized: Dubayy, IPA: [dʊˈbajj], Gulf Arabic pronunciation: [dəˈbaj]) is the most populous city in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the capital of the Emirate of Dubai, the most populated of the country's seven emirates.[7][8][9]
Dubai
دبي | |
---|---|
Coordinates: 25°15′47″N 55°17′50″E | |
Country | United Arab Emirates |
Emirate | Dubai |
Founded by | Obeid bin Said & Maktoum bin Butti Al Maktoum |
Subdivisions | |
Government | |
• Type | Absolute monarchy |
• Director General of Dubai Municipality | Dawoud Al Hajri |
Area | |
• Metropolis | 1,610 km2 (620 sq mi) |
• Metro | 1,994 km2 (770 sq mi) |
Population (2023)[5] | |
• Metropolis | 3,604,030 |
• Density | 2,200/km2 (5,800/sq mi) |
• Metro | 5,894,000 |
• Metro density | 3,000/km2 (7,700/sq mi) |
Demonym | Dubaian |
GDP | |
• Metropolis | US$ 134.6 billion (2023) |
• Metro | US$ 202.8 billion (2023) |
Time zone | UTC+04:00 (UAE Standard Time) |
Website | www.dm.gov.ae |
Established in the 18th century as a small fishing village, Dubai grew into a regional trading hub in the early 20th century and grew rapidly in the late 20th and early 21st centuries with a focus on tourism and luxury.[10] It has the second-most five-star hotels in the world[11] and boasts the tallest building in the world, the Burj Khalifa, which is 828 metres (2,717 ft) tall.
In the eastern Arabian Peninsula, on the coast of the Persian Gulf,[12] it is a major global transport hub for passengers and cargo.[13] Oil revenue helped accelerate the development of the city, which was already a major mercantile hub.
Dubai has been a centre for regional and international trade since the early 20th century, and its economy relies on revenues from trade, tourism, aviation, real estate, and financial services.[14][15][16][17] Oil production contributed less than 1 percent of the emirate's GDP in 2018.[18] The city has a population of around 3.60 million (as of 2022).[19]
Many theories have been proposed as to the origin of the word "Dubai". One theory suggests the word used to be the souq in Ba.[20] An Arabic proverb says "Daba Dubai" (Arabic: دبا دبي), meaning "They came with a lot of money."[21]
According to Fedel Handhal, a scholar on the UAE's history and culture, the word Dubai may have come from the word dabba (Arabic: دب) (a past tense derivative of yadub (Arabic: يدب), which means "to creep"), referring to the slow flow of Dubai Creek inland.
The poet and scholar Ahmad Mohammad Obaid traces it to the same word, but to its alternative meaning of "baby locust" (Arabic: جراد) due to the abundance of locusts in the area before settlement.[22]
The history of human settlement in the area now defined by the United Arab Emirates is rich and complex. It points to extensive trading links between the civilisations of the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia, and even as far afield as the Levant.[23] Archaeological finds in the emirate of Dubai, particularly at Al-Ashoosh, Al Sufouh and the notably rich trove from Saruq Al Hadid[24] show settlement through the Ubaid and Hafit periods, the Umm Al Nar and Wadi Suq periods and the three Iron Ages in the UAE. The area was known to the Sumerians as Magan and was a source for metallic goods, notably copper and bronze.[25]
The area was covered with sand about 5,000 years ago as the coast retreated inland, becoming part of the city's present coastline.[26] Pre-Islamic ceramics have been found from the 3rd and 4th centuries.[27] Prior to the introduction of Islam to the area, the people in this region worshiped Bajir (or Bajar).[27] After the spread of Islam in the region, the Umayyad Caliph of the eastern Islamic world conquered south-east Arabia and drove out the Sassanians. Excavations by the Dubai Museum in the region of Al-Jumayra (Jumeirah) found several artefacts from the Umayyad period.[28]
An early mention of Dubai in 1095 is in the Book of Geography by the Andalusian-Arab geographer Abu Abdullah al-Bakri.[citation needed] The Venetian pearl merchant Gasparo Balbi visited the area in 1580 and mentioned Dubai (Dibei) for its pearling industry.[28]
Establishment of modern Dubai
Dubai is thought to have been established as a fishing village in the early 18th century[29] and was, by 1822, a town of some 700–800 members of the Bani Yas tribe and subject to the rule of Sheikh Tahnun bin Shakhbut of Abu Dhabi.[30] In 1822, a British naval surveyor noted that Dubai was at that time populated with a thousand people living in an oval-shaped town surrounded by a mud wall, scattered with goats and camels. The main footpath out of the village led to a reedy creek while another trailed off into the desert which merged into caravan routes.[31]: 17
In 1833, following tribal feuding, members of the Al Bu Falasah tribe seceded from Abu Dhabi and established themselves in Dubai. The exodus from Abu Dhabi was led by Obeid bin Saeed and Maktoum bin Butti, who became joint leaders of Dubai until Ubaid died in 1836, leaving Maktoum to establish the Maktoum dynasty.[29]
Dubai signed the General Maritime Treaty of 1820 with the British government along with other Trucial States, following the British campaign in 1819 against the Ras Al Khaimah. This led to the 1853 Perpetual Maritime Truce. Dubai also – like its neighbours on the Trucial Coast – entered into an exclusivity agreement in which the United Kingdom took responsibility for the emirate's security in 1892.
In 1841, a smallpox epidemic broke out in the Bur Dubai locality, forcing residents to relocate east to Deira.[32] In 1896, fire broke out in Dubai, a disastrous occurrence in a town where many family homes were still constructed from barasti – palm fronds. The conflagration consumed half the houses of Bur Dubai, while the district of Deira was said to have been totally destroyed. The following year more fires broke out. A female slave was caught in the act of starting one such blaze and was subsequently put to death.[33]
In 1901, Maktoum bin Hasher Al Maktoum established Dubai as a free port with no taxation on imports or exports and also gave merchants parcels of land and guarantees of protection and tolerance. These policies saw a movement of merchants not only directly from Lingeh,[34] but also those who had settled in Ras Al Khaimah and Sharjah (which had historical links with Lingeh through the Al Qawasim tribe) to Dubai. An indicator of the growing importance of the port of Dubai can be gained from the movements of the steamer of the Bombay and Persia Steam Navigation Company, which from 1899 to 1901 paid five visits annually to Dubai. In 1902 the company's vessels made 21 visits to Dubai and from 1904 on,[35] the steamers called fortnightly – in 1906, trading 70,000 tonnes of cargo.[36] The frequency of these vessels only helped to accelerate Dubai's role as an emerging port and trading hub of preference. Lorimer notes the transfer from Lingeh "bids fair to become complete and permanent",[34] and also that the town had by 1906 supplanted Lingeh as the chief entrepôt of the Trucial States.[37]
The "great storm" of 1908 struck the pearling boats of Dubai and the coastal emirates towards the end of the pearling season that year, resulting in the loss of a dozen boats and over 100 men. The disaster was a major setback for Dubai, with many families losing their breadwinner and merchants facing financial ruin. These losses came at a time when the tribes of the interior were also experiencing poverty. In a letter to the Sultan of Muscat in 1911, Butti laments, "Misery and poverty are raging among them, with the result that they are struggling, looting and killing among themselves."[38]
In 1910, in the Hyacinth incident the town was bombarded by HMS Hyacinth, with 37 people killed.
Pre-oil Dubai
Dubai's geographical proximity to Iran made it an important trade location. The town of Dubai was an important port of call for foreign tradesmen, chiefly those from Iran, many of whom eventually settled in the town. By the beginning of the 20th century, it was an important port.[39] At that time, Dubai consisted of the town of Dubai and the nearby village of Jumeirah, a collection of some 45 areesh (palm leaf) huts.[37] By the 1920s, many Iranians settled in Dubai permanently, moving across the Persian Gulf. By then, amenities in the town grew and a modern quarter was established, Al Bastakiya.[31]: 21–23
Dubai was known for its pearl exports until the 1930s; the pearl trade was damaged irreparably by the 1929 Great Depression and the innovation of cultured pearls. With the collapse of the pearling industry, Dubai fell into a deep depression and many residents lived in poverty or migrated to other parts of the Persian Gulf.[26]
In 1937 an oil exploration contract was signed which guaranteed royalty rights for Dubai and concessionary payments to Sheikh Saeed bin Maktoum. However, due to World War II, oil would not be struck until 1966.[31]: 36–37
In the early days since its inception, Dubai was constantly at odds with Abu Dhabi. In 1947, a border dispute between Dubai and Abu Dhabi on the northern sector of their mutual border escalated into war.[40] Arbitration by the British government resulted in a cessation of hostilities.[41]
Despite a lack of oil, Dubai's ruler from 1958, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, used revenue from trading activities to build infrastructure. Private companies were established to build and operate infrastructure, including electricity, telephone services and both the ports and airport operators.[42] An airport of sorts (a runway built on salt flats) was established in Dubai in the 1950s and, in 1959, the emirate's first hotel, the Airlines Hotel, was constructed. This was followed by the Ambassador and Carlton Hotels in 1968.[43]
Sheikh Rashid commissioned John Harris from Halcrow, a British architecture firm, to create the city's first master plan in 1959. Harris imagined a Dubai that would rise from the historic centre on Dubai Creek, with an extensive road system, organised zones, and a town centre, all of which could feasibly be built with the limited financial resources at the time.[44]
1959 saw the establishment of Dubai's first telephone company, 51% owned by IAL (International Aeradio Ltd) and 49% by Sheikh Rashid and local businessmen and in 1961 both the electricity company and telephone company had rolled out operational networks.[45] The water company (Sheikh Rashid was chairman and majority shareholder) constructed a pipeline from wells at Awir and a series of storage tanks and, by 1968, Dubai had a reliable supply of piped water.[45]
On 7 April 1961, the Dubai-based MV Dara, a five thousand ton British flagged vessel that plied the route between Basra (Iraq), Kuwait and Bombay (India), was caught in unusually high winds off Dubai. Early the next morning in heavy seas off Umm al-Quwain, an explosion tore out the second class cabins and started fires. The captain gave the order to abandon ship but two lifeboats capsized and a second explosion occurred. A flotilla of small boats from Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman and Umm al-Quwain picked up survivors, but 238 of the 819 persons on board were lost in the disaster.[46]
The construction of Dubai's first airport was started on the Northern edge of the town in 1959 and the terminal building opened for business in September 1960. The airport was initially serviced by Gulf Aviation (flying Dakotas, Herons and Viscounts) but Iran Air commenced services to Shiraz in 1961.[45]
In 1962 the British Political Agent noted that "Many new houses and blocks of offices and flats are being built... the Ruler is determined, against advice [from the British authorities] to press on with the construction of a jet airport... More and more European and Arab firms are opening up and the future looks bright."[43]
In 1962, with expenditure on infrastructure projects already approaching levels some thought imprudent, Sheikh Rashid approached his brother in law, the Ruler of Qatar, for a loan to build the first bridge crossing Dubai's creek. This crossing was finished in May 1963 and was paid for by a toll levied on the crossing from the Dubai side of the creek to the Deira side.[42]
BOAC was originally reluctant to start regular flights between Bombay and Dubai, fearing a lack of demand for seats. However, by the time the asphalt runway of Dubai Airport was constructed in 1965, opening Dubai to both regional and long haul traffic, a number of foreign airlines were competing for landing rights.[42] In 1970 a new airport terminal building was constructed which included Dubai's first duty-free shops.[47]
Throughout the 1960s Dubai was the centre of a lively gold trade, with 1968 imports of gold at some £56 million. This gold was, in the vast majority, re-exported – mainly to customers who took delivery in international waters off India. The import of gold to India had been banned and so the trade was characterised as smuggling, although Dubai's merchants were quick to point out that they were making legal deliveries of gold and that it was up to the customer where they took it.[48]
In 1966, more gold was shipped from London to Dubai than almost anywhere else in the world (only France and Switzerland took more), at 4 million ounces. Dubai also took delivery of over $15 million-worth of watches and over 5 million ounces of silver. The 1967 price of gold was $35 an ounce but its market price in India was $68 an ounce – a healthy markup. Estimates at the time put the volume of gold imports from Dubai to India at around 75% of the total market.[49]
Oil era
After years of exploration following large finds in neighbouring Abu Dhabi, oil was eventually discovered in territorial waters off Dubai in 1966, albeit in far smaller quantities. The first field was named "Fateh" or "good fortune". This led to an acceleration of Sheikh Rashid's infrastructure development plans and a construction boom that brought a massive influx of foreign workers, mainly Asians and Middle easterners. Between 1968 and 1975 the city's population grew by over 300%.[50]
As part of the infrastructure for pumping and transporting oil from the Fateh field, located offshore of the Jebel Ali area of Dubai, two 500,000 gallon storage tanks were built, known locally as "Kazzans",[51] by welding them together on the beach and then digging them out and floating them to drop onto the seabed at the Fateh field. These were constructed by the Chicago Bridge and Iron Company, which gave the beach its local name (Chicago Beach), which was transferred to the Chicago Beach Hotel, which was demolished and replaced by the Jumeirah Beach Hotel in the late 1990s. The Kazzans were an innovative oil storage solution which meant supertankers could moor offshore even in bad weather and avoided the need to pipe oil onshore from Fateh, which is some 60 miles out to sea.[52]
Dubai had already embarked on a period of infrastructural development and expansion. Oil revenue, flowing from 1969 onwards supported a period of growth with Sheikh Rashid embarking on a policy of building infrastructure and a diversified trading economy before the emirate's limited reserves were depleted. Oil accounted for 24% of GDP in 1990, but had reduced to 7% of GDP by 2004.[13]
Critically, one of the first major projects Sheikh Rashid embarked upon when oil revenue started to flow was the construction of Port Rashid, a deep water free port constructed by British company Halcrow. Originally intended to be a four-berth port, it was extended to sixteen berths as construction was ongoing. The project was an outstanding success, with shipping queuing to access the new facilities. The port was inaugurated on 5 October 1972, although its berths were each pressed into use as soon as they had been built. Port Rashid was to be further expanded in 1975 to add a further 35 berths before the larger port of Jebel Ali was constructed.[13]
Port Rashid was the first of a swath of projects designed to create a modern trading infrastructure, including roads, bridges, schools and hospitals.[53]
Reaching the UAE's Act of Union
Dubai and the other "Trucial States" had long been a British protectorate where the British government took care of foreign policy and defence, as well as arbitrating between the rulers of the Eastern Gulf, the result of a treaty signed in 1892 named the "Exclusive Agreement". This was to change with PM Harold Wilson's announcement, on 16 January 1968, that all British troops were to be withdrawn from "East of Aden". The decision was to pitch the coastal emirates, together with Qatar and Bahrain, into fevered negotiations to fill the political vacuum that the British withdrawal would leave behind.[54]
The principle of union was first agreed upon between the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, and Sheikh Rashid of Dubai on 18 February 1968 meeting in an encampment at Argoub Al Sedirah, near Al Semeih, a desert stop between the two emirates.[55] The two agreed to work towards bringing the other emirates, including Qatar and Bahrain, into the union. Over the next two years, negotiations and meetings of the rulers followed -often stormy- as a form of union was thrashed out. The nine-state union was never to recover from the October 1969 meeting where British intervention against aggressive activities by two of the Emirates resulted in a walk-out by them, Bahrain and Qatar. They dropped out of talks, leaving six of the seven "trucial" emirates to agree on union on 18 July 1971.[56]
On 2 December 1971, Dubai, together with Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm al-Quwain and Fujairah joined in the Act of Union to form the United Arab Emirates. The seventh emirate, Ras Al Khaimah, joined the UAE on 10 February 1972, following Iran's annexation of the RAK-claimed Tunbs islands.[57]
In 1973, Dubai joined the other emirates to adopt a uniform currency: the UAE dirham.[39] In that same year, the prior monetary union with Qatar was dissolved and the UAE Dirham was introduced throughout the Emirates.[58]
Modern Dubai
Throughout the 1970s, Dubai experienced continued growth fueled by revenues generated from oil and trade, even as the city witnessed an influx of immigrants fleeing the Lebanese civil war.[59] Border disputes between the emirates persisted even after the formation of the UAE; it was only in 1979 that a formal compromise was reached, putting an end to disagreements.[60] In 1979, the establishment of the Jebel Ali port, a deep-water port accommodating larger ships, marked a significant development. Initially facing challenges, Sheikh Mohammed initiated the JAFZA (Jebel Ali Free Zone) around the port in 1985, facilitating unrestricted import of labour and export of capital for foreign companies.[61] Simultaneously, Dubai airport and the aviation industry continued their expansion.
The Gulf War in early 1991 had a negative financial impact on the city, with depositors and traders withdrawing money and trade. However, Dubai rebounded in a changing political climate and prospered. In the late 1990s, various foreign trading communities—initially from Kuwait, during the Gulf War, and later from Bahrain, amidst the Shia unrest—relocated their businesses to Dubai.[62] Dubai served as refuelling base for allied forces at the Jebel Ali Free Zone during the Gulf War and again during the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. Subsequent significant increases in oil prices prompted Dubai to maintain its focus on free trade and tourism.[63]
Dubai is situated on the Persian Gulf coast of the United Arab Emirates and is roughly at sea level (16 m or 52 ft above). The emirate of Dubai shares borders with Abu Dhabi in the south, Sharjah in the northeast, and the Sultanate of Oman in the southeast. Hatta, a minor exclave of the emirate, is surrounded on three sides by Oman and by the emirates of Ajman (in the west) and Ras Al Khaimah (in the north). The Persian Gulf borders the western coast of the emirate. Dubai is positioned at 25.2697°N 55.3095°E / 25.2697; 55.3095 and covers an area of 1,588 sq mi (4,110 km2), which represents a significant expansion beyond its initial 1,500 sq mi (3,900 km2) designation due to land reclamation from the sea.[citation needed]
Dubai lies directly within the Arabian Desert. However, the topography of Dubai is significantly different from that of the southern portion of the UAE in that much of Dubai's landscape is highlighted by sandy desert patterns, while gravel deserts dominate much of the southern region of the country.[64] The sand consists mostly of crushed shell and coral and is fine, clean and white. East of the city, the salt-crusted coastal plains, known as sabkha, give way to a north–south running line of dunes. Farther east, the dunes grow larger and are tinged red with iron oxide.[50]
The flat sandy desert gives way to the Western Hajar Mountains, which run alongside Dubai's border with Oman at Hatta. The Western Hajar chain has an arid, jagged and shattered landscape, whose mountains rise to about 1,300 metres (4,265 feet) in some places. Dubai has no natural river bodies or oases; however, Dubai does have a natural inlet, Dubai Creek, which has been dredged to make it deep enough for large vessels to pass through. Dubai also has multiple gorges and waterholes, which dot the base of the Western Al Hajar mountains. A vast sea of sand dunes covers much of southern Dubai and eventually leads into the desert known as The Empty Quarter. Seismically, Dubai is in a very stable zone—the nearest seismic fault line, the Zagros Fault, is 200 kilometres (124 miles) from the UAE and is unlikely to have any seismic impact on Dubai.[65] Experts also predict that the possibility of a tsunami in the region is minimal because the Persian Gulf waters are not deep enough to trigger a tsunami.[65]
The sandy desert surrounding the city supports wild grasses and occasional date palms. Desert hyacinths grow in the sabkha plains east of the city, while acacia and ghaf trees grow in the flat plains within the proximity of the Western Al Hajar mountains. Several indigenous trees such as the date palm and neem as well as imported trees such as the eucalyptus grow in Dubai's natural parks. The MacQueen's bustard, striped hyena, caracal, desert fox, falcon and Arabian oryx are common in Dubai's desert. Dubai is on the migration path between Europe, Asia and Africa, and more than 320 migratory bird species pass through the emirate in spring and autumn. The waters of Dubai are home to more than 300 species of fish, including the hammour. The typical marine life off the Dubai coast includes tropical fish, jellyfish, coral, dugong, dolphins, whales and sharks. Various types of turtles can also be found in the area including the hawksbill turtle and green turtle, which are listed as endangered species.[66][67]
Climate
Dubai features a tropical,[68] hot desert climate (Köppen BWh). Summers in Dubai are extremely hot, prolonged, windy, and humid, with an average high around 40 °C (104 °F) and overnight lows around 30 °C (86 °F) in the hottest month, August. Most days are sunny throughout the year. Winters are mild to warm, with an average high of 24 °C (75 °F) and overnight lows of 14 °C (57 °F) in January, the coolest month.
Dubai summers are also known for the very high humidity level, which can make it very uncomfortable for many with exceptionally high dew points, which can exceed 30 °C (86 °F) in summer. Heat index values can reach over 60 °C (140 °F) at the height of summer.[69] The highest recorded temperature in Dubai is 49.0 °C (120.2 °F).
Very dry, Dubai's average annual precipitation is 79.2 mm (3.12 in). However, precipitation has been increasing in the last few decades, with accumulated rain reaching 110.7 mm (4.36 in) per year.[70]
Climate data for Dubai (1991–2020) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 31.8 (89.2) |
37.5 (99.5) |
41.3 (106.3) |
43.5 (110.3) |
47.0 (116.6) |
47.9 (118.2) |
49.0 (120.2) |
48.8 (119.8) |
45.1 (113.2) |
42.4 (108.3) |
38.1 (100.6) |
33.2 (91.8) |
49.0 (120.2) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 23.9 (75.0) |
25.4 (77.7) |
28.9 (84.0) |
33.3 (91.9) |
37.7 (99.9) |
39.8 (103.6) |
40.9 (105.6) |
41.3 (106.3) |
38.9 (102.0) |
35.4 (95.7) |
30.6 (87.1) |
26.2 (79.2) |
33.5 (92.3) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 19.1 (66.4) |
20.5 (68.9) |
23.6 (74.5) |
27.5 (81.5) |
31.4 (88.5) |
33.4 (92.1) |
35.5 (95.9) |
35.9 (96.6) |
33.3 (91.9) |
29.8 (85.6) |
25.4 (77.7) |
21.2 (70.2) |
28.1 (82.5) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 14.3 (57.7) |
15.5 (59.9) |
18.3 (64.9) |
21.7 (71.1) |
25.1 (77.2) |
26.9 (80.4) |
30.0 (86.0) |
30.4 (86.7) |
27.7 (81.9) |
24.1 (75.4) |
20.1 (68.2) |
16.3 (61.3) |
22.5 (72.6) |
Record low °C (°F) | 7.7 (45.9) |
7.4 (45.3) |
11.0 (51.8) |
13.7 (56.7) |
15.7 (60.3) |
19.6 (67.3) |
24.1 (75.4) |
24.0 (75.2) |
22.0 (71.6) |
15.0 (59.0) |
10.8 (51.4) |
8.2 (46.8) |
7.4 (45.3) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 20.8 (0.82) |
9.9 (0.39) |
21.7 (0.85) |
3.3 (0.13) |
0.1 (0.00) |
0.02 (0.00) |
1.1 (0.04) |
0.003 (0.00) |
0.04 (0.00) |
1.5 (0.06) |
5.9 (0.23) |
14.8 (0.58) |
79.2 (3.12) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) | 2.8 | 2.4 | 3.4 | 1.5 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 1.3 | 3.8 | 17.2 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 251 | 241 | 270 | 306 | 350 | 345 | 332 | 326 | 309 | 307 | 279 | 254 | 3,570 |
Mean daily sunshine hours | 8.1 | 8.6 | 8.7 | 10.2 | 11.3 | 11.5 | 10.7 | 10.5 | 10.3 | 9.9 | 9.3 | 8.2 | 9.8 |
Average ultraviolet index | 5 | 7 | 9 | 11 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 11 | 9 | 6 | 5 | 9 |
Source 1: NOAA,[71] Dubai Meteorological Office[72] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: UAE National Center of Meteorology[73] |
Dubai has been ruled by the Al Maktoum family since 1833; the emirate is an absolute monarchy. Dubai citizens participate in the electoral college to vote representatives to the Federal National Council of the 'UAE'. The ruler, His Highness Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, is also the vice-president and Prime Minister of the United Arab Emirates and member of the Supreme Council of the Union (SCU). Dubai appoints 8 members in two-term periods to the Federal National Council (FNC) of the UAE, the supreme federal legislative body.[74]
The Dubai Municipality (DM) was established by the then ruler of Dubai, Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, in 1954 for purposes of city planning, citizen services and upkeep of local facilities.[75] It has since then evolved into an autonomous subnational authority, collectively known as the Government of Dubai which is responsible for both the city of Dubai and the greater emirate.[76] The Government of Dubai has over 58 governmental departments responsible for security, economic policy, education, transportations, immigration, and is only one of the three emirates to have a separate judicial system independent from the federal judiciary of the UAE.[77] The Ruler of Dubai is the head of government and emir (head of state) and laws, decrees, and court judgements are issued in his name, however, since 2003, executive authority of managing and overseeing Dubai Governmental agencies has been delegated to the Dubai Executive Council, led by Crown Prince of Dubai Hamdan bin Mohammed Al Maktoum. Although no legislative assembly exists, the traditional open majlis (council) where citizens and representatives of the Ruler meet are often used for feedback on certain domestic issues.[78][79]
The Dubai Police Force, founded in 1956 in the locality of Naif, has law enforcement jurisdiction over the emirate. The force is under direct command of Mohammed bin Rashid al Maktoum.[80] Dubai and Ras al Khaimah are the only emirates that do not conform to the federal judicial system of the United Arab Emirates.[81] The emirate's judicial courts comprise the Court of First Instance, the Court of Appeal, and the Court of Cassation. The Court of First Instance consists of the Civil Court, which hears all civil claims; the Criminal Court, which hears claims originating from police complaints; and Sharia Court, which is responsible for matters between Muslims. Non-Muslims do not appear before the Sharia Court. The Court of Cassation is the supreme court of the emirate and hears disputes on matters of law only.[82] Alcohol sale and consumption, though legal, is regulated. Adult non-Muslims are allowed to consume alcohol in licensed venues, typically within hotels, or at home with the possession of an alcohol licence. Places other than hotels, clubs, and specially designated areas are typically not permitted to sell alcohol.[83] As in other parts of the world, drinking and driving is illegal, with 21 being the legal drinking age in the Emirate of Dubai.[84]
Dubai has one of the world's lowest violent crime rates,[85] and in 2019 was ranked the seventh-safest city in the world.[86][87][88] The Security Industry Regulatory Agency classified the crimes into six categories.[89] These crimes include theft, forced robbery, domestic burglary, fraud, sexual assault and abuse, and criminal damages.[89] As per Gulf News, Dubai Police stated that the crime in Dubai was reduced by fifteen percent during 2017. However, the cases of drugs operation increased by eight per cent. Major-General Abdullah Khalifa Al Merri, Commander-in-Chief of Dubai Police, hailed the force which solved 86 per cent of criminal cases.[90]
International crime hub and criminal haven
Dubai is a notorious global centre and sanctuary for criminals and their associates. It has been called a 'gangster's paradise'.[91] This includes money laundering by major crime syndicates.
This state of affairs has been enabled by a complex range of factors: the lack of extradition treaties with many countries, banking secrecy, liberal visa policies, low taxes, a large expatriate community in which shady figures are easily absorbed and welcomed, a non-transparent real estate market that readily enables money laundering, and not least, the monarchical dictatorship of the Maktoum family which facilitates it through deliberately lax legislation and policy.[92][93] One international billionaire criminal it has harboured is Amit Gupta, who bribed Nauru politicians in an attempt to stage a coup that would give him control of that island's mining rights.[94] Another transnational crime figure to whom the citystate provides sanctuary is Ahmed Al Hamza.[95]
Dubai’s Role in Facilitating Corruption and Global Illicit Financial Flows, a 2020 report from influential Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, stated: "part of what underpins Dubai’s prosperity is a steady stream of illicit proceeds borne from corruption and crime...Meanwhile, both Emirati leaders and the international community continue to turn a blind eye to the problematic behaviours, administrative loopholes, and weak enforcement practices that make Dubai a globally attractive destination for dirty money.”[96]
Dubai is an investment base for the international drug trade by Balkan criminal groups, while Belgian criminals are notably active in its real estate market on behalf of Russian oligarchs and politicians, who seek to launder their ill-gotten gains.[97] In 2022, a data leak obtained by the U.S. Center for Advanced Defense Studies (C4ADS), exposed just some of this activity.[98] Dubai is under observation by the Financial Action Task Force (FATF), which is likely to bring greater international scrutiny and pressure on its government.[99]
Human rights
Companies in Dubai have in the past been criticised for human rights violations against labourers.[101][102][103] Some of the 250,000 foreign labourers in the city have been alleged to live in conditions described by Human Rights Watch as "less than humane".[104][105][106][107] The mistreatment of foreign workers was a subject of the difficult-to-make documentary, Slaves in Dubai (2009).[108] The Dubai government has denied labour injustices and stated that the watchdogs' (Human Rights Watch) accusations were "misguided". The filmmaker explained in interviews how it was necessary to go undercover to avoid discovery by the authorities, who impose high fines on reporters attempting to document human rights abuses, including the conditions of construction workers.
Towards the end of March 2006, the government had announced steps to allow construction unions. UAE labour minister Ali al-Kaabi said: "Labourers will be allowed to form unions."[109] As of 2020, the federal public prosecution has clarified that "it is an offense when at least three public employees collectively leave work or one of the duties to achieve an unlawful purpose. Each employee will be punished with not less than 6 months in prison and not more than a year, as the imprisonment will be for leaving the job or duties that affect the health or the security of the people, or affect other public services of public benefit." Any act of spreading discord among employees will be punishable by imprisonment, and in all cases, foreigners will be deported.[110]
Homosexual acts are illegal under UAE law.[111] Freedom of speech in Dubai is limited, with both residents and citizens facing severe sanctions from the government for speaking out against the royal family or local laws and culture.[112] Some of the labourers lured by the higher pay available in Dubai are victims of human trafficking or forced labour while some women are even forced into the growing sex trade in Dubai, a centre of human trafficking and prostitution.[113]
Defamation on social media is a punishable offence in Dubai with fines up to half a million dirhams and jail term for up to 2 years. In January 2020, three Sri Lankan expats were fined 500,000 dirhams (US$136,000) each for posting defamatory Islamophobic Facebook posts.[114]